AN EXTRAORDINARY CRETACEOUS ECOSYSTEM
ABSTRACT
Reconstructing the Kem Kem Beds takes readers on a journey into one of the most remarkable prehistoric ecosystems of North Africa. Around 100 million years ago, the region now occupied by the Sahara was home to formidable predators such as Spinosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus, alongside giant sauropods, crocodilians, pterosaurs, and an extraordinary diversity of aquatic life. Combining the latest palaeontological research with vivid reconstructions and an exploration of ancient food webs, this article brings the lost world of the Kem Kem Beds to life, revealing the complexity of an ecosystem whose abundance of giant predators continues to challenge our understanding of Cretaceous life.
1. Artistic reconstruction of the Kem Kem Beds, depicting Spinosaurus aegyptiacus swimming in the center of the scene, while the giant pterosaur Alanqa soars overhead and appears in the far-right background, by Julio Lacerda, https://paleostock.com/resource/kem-kem-beds-stock-photo/
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Between 100 and 94 million years ago, during the Cenomanian, the region that is now the Sahara Desert looked radically different. In southeastern Morocco, the Kem Kem Beds preserve the remains of a remarkable Cretaceous ecosystem that flourished along rivers, floodplains, and other aquatic environments. Initially divided into three formations, the Ifezouane, Aoufous, and Akrabou formations, these deposits were subsequently shown to be more closely related than originally thought, forming part of the broader Kem Kem sequence. Stretching across an extensive escarpment near the Moroccan-Algerian border, these richly fossiliferous continental deposits rank among the most important vertebrate-bearing sites in North Africa. Their sandstones and mudstones have yielded an extraordinary diversity of fishes, crocodilians, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs, including the iconic predators Spinosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus. Although comparable Cretaceous deposits occur elsewhere in North Africa, the Kem Kem Beds stand out for their extensive outcrops and remarkably diverse fossil assemblage. First systematically investigated by René Lavocat in the late 1940s, they continue to provide valuable insights into the biodiversity, food webs, and ecological dynamics of the ancient ecosystems that once thrived in the Cretaceous Sahara.1
2. Map of Morocco showing the geographical location of the Kem Kem Beds in the southeastern part of the country, near the Algerian border, from FACTOR TRACE, Every Spinosaurid, explained, on Youtube, 23rd March 2024, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=di2_E3wkfKg
3. Map of the geographical setting of the Kem Kem region and its outcrops; (A) Location of the Kem Kem Beds in Morocco; (B) Location of the Kem Kem region and contemporary fossil sites in North Africa; (C) Cretaceous outcrops along the Kem Kem and Guir Hamadas (modified from Sereno and al. 1996); Numbers: (1) Kem Kem, Morocco; (2) Gara Samani, Algeria; (3) Timimoun, Algeria; (4) Monts des Ksours, Algeria; (5) Djoua Valley, Algeria; (6) Al Hamra Hamada, Libya; (7) In Abangharit, Niger; (8) Bahariya, Egypt; (9) Tataouine, Tunisia, from IBRAHIM, N. SERENO, P.C. and all., Geology and palaeontology, p. 4.
PRESENTATION OF THE PALEOENVIRONMENT
During the Cenomanian, the region now occupied by the Kem Kem Beds was a vast, low-lying coastal plain crossed by rivers, with environments ranging from fluvial systems to estuaries and lagoons. Its sandstone deposits preserve characteristic cross-stratification produced by migrating river channels, alongside bone beds containing abundant vertebrate remains. Further west, extensive evaporitic lagoons developed where limited freshwater input encouraged the concentration of dissolved salts. This landscape was eventually transformed by a major marine transgression associated with a global rise in sea level, also recorded by chalk deposits in Europe. As the sea advanced, the Kem Kem region shifted towards a calm, shallow marine environment, followed by the development of reef systems populated by rudists and benthic microorganisms. During the Late Cenomanian, macrofaunal and microfaunal diversity declined, while oysters, gastropods, and ostracods became more prominent. The transgression ultimately reached its maximum extent, contributing to the formation of a seaway connecting the Tethys Ocean with the South Atlantic and profoundly reshaping the geography of North Africa.2
4. Reconstitution of a cross section of a North African Cenomanian river system: (A) terrestrial gallery forest; (B) rivers; (C) marsh/transitional communities; (D) mangals; (E) tidal channels; (F) lagoons; (G) sandbars/reefs; (H) epicontinental sea; adapted from Lacovara and al. (2003) with modifications, by Joschua Knüppe, from IJOUIHER, J., The Desert Bones, p. 8.
PRESENTATION OF THE PALEOFAUNA
The Kem Kem Beds preserve an extraordinary diversity of terrestrial and aquatic life. Their rivers and floodplains supported a rich aquatic ecosystem dominated by fish, including large predatory species, alongside turtles and numerous crocodile-line reptiles. The region also hosted pterosaurs and a remarkable diversity of dinosaurs, among which theropods were particularly prominent. These included giant apex predators as well as other carnivorous species, while herbivorous dinosaurs, although present, appear to have been less abundant in the fossil record. This apparent imbalance between predators and herbivores, combined with the abundance of large piscivorous animals, makes the Kem Kem fauna particularly distinctive and has sparked considerable debate over the structure of its ancient food web. Although much of the fossil material consists of isolated bones, this diverse assemblage provides valuable evidence for reconstructing the biodiversity, ecological relationships, and environmental dynamics.3
5. Trophic structure of the Kem Kem Beds, illustrating the food web from apex predators to primary producers, by Théo Di Pillo, 7th October 2026.
The Kem Kem Group of Morocco preserves an exceptionally diverse fish assemblage, comprising both bony fishes and cartilaginous fishes. Among its most characteristic inhabitants was Onchopristis numidus, a sawfish-like chondrichthyan estimated to have reached between 3 and 8 meters in length. It possessed an elongated rostrum lined with sharp teeth on either side, an adaptation used to detect and capture prey. The bony-fish assemblage was equally remarkable. It included the giant coelacanth Mawsonia lavocati, which could reach approximately 3.5 meters and was a large carnivorous predator, as well as the lungfish Neoceratodus africanus, estimated at around 70 centimeters. Lungfishes are particularly notable for their ability to breathe air using lungs, a characteristic that allows some living species to survive in oxygen-poor waters. Today, the Australian lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) is the sole surviving species of its genus. Other predatory fishes included Aidachar pankowskii, an ichthyodectiform reaching approximately one meter in length, comparable in its broader taxonomic group to the much larger Xiphactinus audax found in the United States. The giant holostean Bawitius could reach around 2.5 meters. The assemblage also contained Lepidotes, a fish associated with durophagy, or feeding on hard-shelled prey, alongside Palaeonotopterus greenwoodi and Concavotectum moroccensis, whose ecological roles and feeding strategies remain less certain, including the possibility of filter feeding in some taxa. Smaller fishes, such as Erfoudichthys rosae, further contributed to this diversity. Together, these taxa represent a wide range of body sizes, feeding strategies, and ecological niches, from smaller fishes to large aquatic predators, illustrating the complexity of the Cretaceous freshwater and estuarine ecosystems of the Kem Kem region. Overall, the Kem Kem fish fauna combines numerous lineages, body sizes and feeding strategies, from small lungfishes and low-trophic-level species to giant predators such as Mawsonia, illustrating the complexity of this Cretaceous aquatic ecosystem.4
6. Scale reconstruction of the bony-fish assemblage of the Kem Kem Beds, illustrating the diversity of trophic niches, including piscivores, filter-feeders, microphages, durophages, and invertivores, after Cavin and al., 2015, from LEBRUN, P., Fossils from Morocco, vol. 2a, p. 158.
7. Paleoartistic reconstruction of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus hunting the prehistoric sawfish Onchopristis numidus in the aquatic environment of the Kem Kem Beds, by Davide Bonadonna, from BLACK, R., Heavy Bones Helped Some Spinosaurs Swim, from Smithsonian magazine, 23rd March 2023, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/heavy-bones-helped-some-species-of-spinosaurs-swim-180979775/
8. Onchopristis Rostral teeth pictures
Before turning to the remarkable dinosaurs and aerial predators of the Kem Kem Beds, it is worth exploring the aquatic predators that inhabited these ancient waters. Among them was Tribodus aschersoni, a member of the hybodont sharks, an ancient group that had already existed for more than 150 million years by the time the Kem Kem ecosystem developed. Hybodonts first appeared during the Devonian, approximately 375–360 million years ago and subsequently diversified across marine and freshwater environments. By the Cretaceous, however, they coexisted with increasingly diverse ancestors of modern sharks, including Cretolamna. Unlike many of these more streamlined sharks, hybodonts often possessed robust bodies, distinctive dorsal fin spines, and specialised dentitions adapted to a variety of feeding strategies. Tribodus was one of the hybodonts present in Cretaceous North Africa, where it formed part of a diverse aquatic predator community. Other members of this ancient group evolved crushing teeth suited to feeding on hard-shelled prey, demonstrating the ecological diversity of hybodonts across different environments. Their eventual extinction marked the disappearance of a lineage that had played an important role in aquatic ecosystems for hundreds of millions of years, as neoselachian sharks became increasingly prominent during the Mesozoic.5
9. Paleoartistic reconstruction of Tribodus aschersoni swimming through the prehistoric waters of the Kem Kem Beds during the Cenomanian, by Alain Bénéteau, from CUNY, G., Requins, p. 156.
10. Hybodontid dorsal spines
Alongside the sharks, the Kem Kem ecosystem supported a diverse assemblage of crocodyliforms, including both terrestrial and aquatic species, some of which belonged to evolutionary lineages distantly related to modern crocodilians. Three genera are particularly noteworthy. One of the smaller forms was Araripesuchus rattoides, a crocodyliform that may have occupied a distinct ecological niche from the large aquatic predators of the region. Its denticulate, leaf-shaped to subcircular teeth show substantial wear with age, while its forward-projecting anterior teeth may have been adapted for digging. These features have led researchers to suggest that Araripesuchus may have been omnivorous, potentially incorporating plant material into its diet. At the other end of the ecological spectrum was Elosuchus cherifiensis, a large aquatic crocodyliform whose precise evolutionary relationships remain debated. Its extremely elongated snout and numerous teeth suggest a predominantly piscivorous diet. Some skulls exceed one meter in length, indicating an animal of considerable size. Like the modern gharial, Elosuchus may nevertheless have been capable of capturing prey other than fish when opportunities arose. Another remarkable form was Laganosuchus maghrebensis known with related material described from Morocco and Niger. This crocodyliform may have reached approximately six meters in length and possessed long, straight, spike-like teeth, including slightly forward-projecting teeth near the front of its jaws. Its morphology has been compared with that of stomatosuchids and suggests a predominantly aquatic lifestyle, possibly involving ambush predation. Rather than actively pursuing prey, Laganosuchus may have remained partially submerged, waiting for fish or other animals to approach within striking distance. Together, these crocodyliforms illustrate the ecological diversity of the Kem Kem fauna, from smaller terrestrial foragers to large aquatic predators.6
11. Paleoartistic reconstruction of the Kem Kem river ecosystem, depicting several genera from the Kem Kem Beds, including the iconic theropods Spinosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus, alongside a sauropod, possibly Rebbachisaurus, recognisable by its long, whip-like tail. The turtle may represent Galianemys, while the crocodilian could be Laganosuchus. In the water, ray-like cartilaginous fishes, possibly Schizorhiza stomeri or Onchopristis, and the giant coelacanth Mawsonia swim through the ancient river, on the far left, Bawitius and Tribodus are depicted near the remains of an indeterminate leptocleidid plesiosaur, by Joschua Knüppe, from X, 25th December 2025.
12. Paleoartistic reconstruction of Carcharodontosaurus surveying a group of Elosuchus gathered near a carcass in the Cretaceous ecosystem of the Kem Kem Beds, by David Bonadonna, from Sahara was Earth’s Most Dangerous Place 100 million years Ago, 27th April 2020, https://www.sci.news/paleontology/kem-kem-predators-08367.html
13. Elosuchus teeth
The Kem Kem Beds preserve an exceptionally diverse assemblage of pterosaurs, often popularly known as “flying dinosaurs”, although they were, in fact, flying reptiles rather than dinosaurs. These animals ranged in size from small bird-sized species to forms with wingspans comparable to those of small aircraft. At least nine named taxa have been reported from the Kem Kem Beds, representing several distinct groups, including Ornithocheiridae, Azhdarchidae, and Tapejaridae. Among them were toothed forms such as Anhanguera, Coloborhynchus, Ornithocheirus, and Siroccopteryx, which may have been aerial piscivores, catching fish from the rivers and wetlands. Other pterosaurs, including Alanqa, Xericeps, Leptostomia, and Afrotapejara, possessed different skull and jaw morphologies, suggesting a wider range of feeding strategies and ecological roles. Together, these pterosaurs illustrate the remarkable diversity of flying reptiles that inhabited the Kem Kem ecosystem, exploiting a variety of ecological niches above and around its waterways.7
14. Paleoartistic reconstruction of the pterosaur assemblage of the Kem Kem River system, featuring: (1) Leptostomia begaaensis; (2) Apatorhamphus gyrostega; (3) Alanqa saharica; (4) Xericeps curvirostris; (5) Afrotapejara zouhrii; (6) Ornithocheirus simus; (7) Coloborhynchus fluviferox; (8) Anhanguera piscator; and (9) Siroccopteryx moroccensis, by Emily Pilavachi, from SMITH. R. E. IBRAHIM, N. and all., The pterosaurs of the Cretaceous Kem Kem, p. 562.
15. Pterosaur teeth
One of the most remarkable features of the Kem Kem paleoecosystem is what is known as “Stromer’s Riddle”: the unusually high abundance of large predatory dinosaurs compared with herbivores. First identified in 1936 by the German palaeontologist Ernst Stromer in Egypt’s Bahariya Formation, which is roughly contemporaneous with the Kem Kem Group, this apparent imbalance remains a notable feature of the region’s fossil record. Herbivorous dinosaurs are comparatively poorly represented, with the sauropod record including an unidentified titanosaurid known from a single caudal vertebra, insufficient to establish a link with Aegyptosaurus or Paralititan, as well as the better-known Rebbachisaurus garasbae8. However, new ichnological evidence offers a complementary perspective: the footprints identified in the Kem Kem Beds are attributed mainly to medium-sized theropods and probable ornithopods, alongside turtles and possible pterosaurs and crocodilians, with no identifiable tracks of large theropods or sauropods. This discrepancy does not necessarily contradict the body fossil record or indicate a fundamentally different ecosystem. Instead, it may reflect differences in depositional environments between the formations, as well as preservation and collection biases that influence which traces can be recognised. Taken together, the skeletal and ichnological evidence highlights both the apparent imbalance that characterises the Kem Kem fauna and the limitations of the available record, reminding us that our understanding of this Cretaceous ecosystem remains incomplete.9
Rebbachisaurus garasbae was a diplodocoid sauropod estimated to have reached 15–20 meters in length and weighed approximately 7–12 tonnes. Its remains are known from North Africa, including Morocco, Tunisia, and Niger, as well as from Europe, particularly Spain. Like other sauropods, it was a large, quadrupedal herbivore with a relatively small head, a long neck, and an elongated, whip-like tail. Its distribution across North Africa and Europe provides valuable evidence for faunal connections between these regions during the Cretaceous, when land connections and dispersal routes may have facilitated the movement of dinosaur populations. Its skull and presumed beak-like covering suggest adaptations for cropping vegetation, although the precise details of its feeding behaviour remain uncertain. Rebbachisaurus was therefore an important component of the Kem Kem ecosystem, representing the large-bodied herbivores that survived with its diverse assemblage of predators.10
16. Paleoartistic reconstruction of a Rebbachaurid sauropod, by Andrey Atuchin, from Species New to Science, 25th February 2021, https://novataxa.blogspot.com/2021/02/dzharatitanis.html
Alongside its famous giant predators, the Kem Kem Beds preserve evidence of several other theropod dinosaurs, including an indeterminate medium-sized abelisaurid. Research published in the 2000s documented remains attributed to this group, including a partial femur, fragments of the upper and lower jaws (maxilla and dentary), and several isolated teeth. Features of the femur support its identification as an abelisaurid, although the fragmentary nature of the material prevents a more precise taxonomic identification. Based on the available remains, its estimated length may have ranged from approximately 3 to 7 meters, although this estimate remains uncertain. Abelisaurid teeth are relatively common in the Kem Kem fossil record, and some specimens sold by fossil dealers are marketed as “raptor teeth”, despite belonging instead to an indeterminate abelisaurid or potentially to Deltadromeus, depending on the specimen. Although these fossils cannot currently be assigned confidently to a particular genus or species, they indicate that abelisaurids formed part of the Kem Kem theropod community, living alongside iconic predators such as Spinosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus. Their precise ecological roles remain unclear, but they may have included active predation on smaller animals as well as opportunistic scavenging.11
18. Highly speculative paleoartistic reconstruction of an indeterminate abelisaurid (Abelisauridae indet.), based on the fragmentary fossil remains recovered from the Kem Kem Beds, by Joschua Knüppe, from IJOUIHER, J., The Desert Bones, p. 205.
19. Abelisaur teeth
Another theropod that may have occupied a higher position than abelisaurid in the Kem Kem food web was Deltadromeus agilis, one of the most enigmatic dinosaurs known from the region. Its classification remains highly debated, as the species is known from fragmentary skeletal remains, including cervical and dorsal ribs, as well as other postcranial bones. Initially classified as a coelurosaur by Paul Sereno, Deltadromeus has subsequently been associated with several theropod groups, including ceratosaurs, noasaurids, neovenatorids, tyrannosauroids, and megaraptorans. It has traditionally been reconstructed as a large, slender-bodied predator with elongated limbs, potentially adapted for rapid locomotion. Early estimates suggested a length of 11–12 meters and a weight of approximately 3–4 tonnes, although some interpretations favour a more moderate size of around 8 meters. Its possible relationship with Elaphrosaurus, a theropod known from the Bahariya Formation of Egypt, has also been discussed, although its precise affinities remain unresolved. Isolated teeth from the Kem Kem Beds are sometimes marketed by fossil dealers as “raptor teeth”, but some may instead belong to indeterminate abelisaurids or Deltadromeus, although such identifications require caution. Despite these uncertainties, the available fossils indicate the presence of an unusual theropod in the Kem Kem ecosystem, whose anatomy, evolutionary relationships, and precise ecological role remain subjects of scientific debate.12
20. Size comparison chart of Deltadromeus agilis, reconstructed as a noasaurid, with a 1 meter scale bar, by “Definitely NOT Dilophosaurus”, on Wikimedia Commons, 21st September 2024, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DeltaSize.png
Carcharodontosaurus saharicus was one of the principal terrestrial predators of the Kem Kem Beds and ranks among the largest theropods known from North Africa. Its length has been estimated at approximately 12–13 meters, with a body mass of several tonnes. Its enormous skull could exceed 1.5 meters in length and was equipped with large, blade-like teeth reaching approximately 20 centimeters. These teeth featured prominent grooves and serrated edges, inspiring the name Carcharodontosaurus, meaning “shark-toothed lizard”, in reference to the resemblance of their teeth to those of white sharks. Fossil remains attributed to this species have been reported from several parts of North Africa, including Egypt, Morocco, Algeria, Niger, and Tunisia, in deposits dating from the Albian to the Cenomanian. The earliest material, initially described under the name Megalosaurus saharicus, consisted of teeth discovered in Algeria. The species remained poorly understood until Ernst Stromer described more complete remains from Egypt, including a partial skull and skeleton. Tragically, these specimens were destroyed during the bombing of Munich in 1944. Our understanding of the animal was subsequently improved by the discovery of a remarkably complete skull in Morocco during the 1990s. Despite its formidable anatomy, the precise feeding capabilities of Carcharodontosaurus remain debated. Nash (2015) estimated that it could lift approximately 850 kilograms with its jaws, a figure that has been questioned by other interpretations of its functional anatomy. Ijouiher (2022), for example, argued that the animal could attack large herbivorous dinosaurs, including sauropods and large ornithopods. Such encounters would not necessarily have required it to carry its prey away: a large carcass could instead have been consumed at the site of the kill. Nevertheless, estimates of jaw strength and prey-handling abilities remain dependent on biomechanical assumptions, and the precise limits of Carcharodontosaurus' feeding behaviour are still uncertain.13
21. Paleoartistic reconstruction of Carcharodontosaurus saharicus taking down a rebbachisaurid sauropod in the Kem Kem Beds during the Cenomanian, by Mark Witton, from Mark Witton.co, https://www.markwitton.co.uk/palaeoart?pgid=kvcjcz2d-b15299e5-d031-4cd2-ac64-389ec4087c97
The last of the major theropods of the Kem Kem Beds is perhaps also one of the most controversial and ecologically specialised dinosaurs known from this environment. Spinosaurus aegyptiacus was a giant theropod, estimated to have reached approximately 15–18 meters in length and 4–7 tonnes in body mass. It was first discovered in Egypt in 1911 by the German palaeontologist Ernst Stromer von Reichenbach (1871–1952), with additional remains subsequently recovered from Morocco. Unfortunately, the original Egyptian specimens described by Stromer were destroyed during an Allied bombing raid over Munich on 24th–25th April 1944. Stromer's detailed descriptions and illustrations nevertheless preserved valuable information about the animal, allowing subsequent researchers to continue studying the species despite the loss of the original fossils. Spinosaurus and other spinosaurids are distinguished by a suite of unusual anatomical features. These include elongated, crocodile-like jaws, nostrils positioned relatively far back on the snout, narrow conical teeth adapted for gripping prey, and an enormous dorsal sail supported by elongated neural spines. Spinosaurus also possessed a long, deep, paddle-like tail, setting it apart from most other large theropods. These features, together with evidence from its skeletal anatomy and the environments in which its fossils were found, have led many researchers to interpret it as a semi-aquatic dinosaur that spent considerable time in and around water. However, its precise relationship with the aquatic environment remains controversial. Scientists continue to debate how effectively it could swim, how it propelled itself through the water, and whether it could pursue prey actively or relied primarily on hunting in shallow water. Its distinctive anatomy is closely linked to its presumed diet. Spinosaurus is generally interpreted as having been strongly piscivorous, an ecological hypothesis proposed by Taquet in 1984. Evidence from other spinosaurids supports the importance of fish in their diet: fossilised gut contents have revealed fish remains. In the Kem Kem ecosystem, the giant sawfish Onchopristis, large sharks, rays, and lungfishes would have represented a particularly abundant prey item. Nevertheless, spinosaurids were not necessarily restricted to fish. Remains attributed to other dinosaurs and pterosaurs have also been reported among their stomach contents, suggesting that their feeding habits may have been more varied than a strictly piscivorous diet would imply.14
23. Paleoartistic reconstruction of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus hunting Neoceratodus africanus in the waters of the Kem Kem Beds, by Davide Bonadonna, MUELLER, T., Mister big, from National Geographic, October 2014, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/spinosaurus-dinosaur
25. Palaeontological schematic comparing the teeth of four types of theropod predators from the Kem Kem Beds: Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, Carcharodontosaurus saharicus, an indeterminate abelisaurid (Abelisauridae indet.), and the putative noasaurid Deltadromeus agilis, by Joschua Knüppe, from UTRECHT UNIVERSITY, New method finds higher carnivorous dinosaur biodiversity in Kem Kem beds of Morocco, from Phys.org, 12th march 2024, https://phys.org/news/2024-03- method-higher-carnivorous- dinosaur-biodiversity.html
CONCLUSION
Unlike the relatively abrupt and catastrophic mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous, approximately 66 million years ago, which led to the disappearance of all non-avian dinosaurs, the Cenomanian–Turonian extinction event unfolded over a more prolonged period. Occurring around 94 million years ago, this crisis marked the transition from the Cenomanian to the Turonian stages of the Late Cretaceous and developed over approximately 1.46 million years, with its most severe phase concentrated in the final 520,000 years. Its effects were particularly pronounced among marine organisms, although environmental changes also affected continental ecosystems. In some respects, the North African ecosystems, including those preserved in the Kem Kem Beds, may have been undermined by the very conditions that had sustained their productivity. Toward the end of the Cenomanian, excessive nutrient inputs into aquatic environments may have encouraged eutrophication, promoting extensive algal blooms and, in some circumstances, harmful red tides. These blooms could reduce water clarity, limit light penetration, and disrupt aquatic food webs. As the algae died and decomposed, oxygen levels could also decline, placing additional stress on aquatic organisms. Over time, such environmental deterioration may have contributed to changes in species composition and the decline of organisms dependent on stable aquatic conditions.15
Today, the Sahara is a vast expanse of sand and stone, but nearly 100 million years ago, the landscapes of the Kem Kem Beds were alive with the movement of rivers, the shadows of flying reptiles and the presence of some of the most extraordinary predators ever to walk the Earth. From the colossal Spinosaurus to the formidable Carcharodontosaurus, alongside ancient fish, crocodile-line reptiles and pterosaurs, this lost world reveals a richness of life that continues to fascinate scientists and enthusiasts alike. Yet, the Kem Kem Beds are more than a land of giants. They are a window into a distant past, preserved in fragments of bone and stone, through which we can begin to reconstruct the complexity of an ecosystem that disappeared millions of years ago. Many of its mysteries remain unsolved, reminding us that every fossil is a piece of a much larger story. And perhaps this is what makes the Kem Kem Beds so extraordinary: beneath the silence of the Moroccan desert lies the memory of a world that vanished, but whose inhabitants still have much to tell us.
Théo Di Pillo
Historian and palaeontology enthusiast
“Palaeontologic North Africa was a huge biome, one that is only just beginning to be explored.”
Jamale Ijouiher, July 2022
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NOTES
1. IJOUIHER, J., The Desert Bones, p. 17-20; IBRAHIM, N. SERENO, P.C. and all., Geology and palaeontology, p. 1-10; CAVIN, L, TONG, H. and all., Vertebrate assemblages, p. 394.
2. LEBRUN, P., Fossils from Morocco, vol. 2a, p. 154-156.
3. LEBRUN, P., Fossils from Morocco, vol. 2a, p. 156-175.
4. IJOUIHER, J., The Desert Bones, p. 101, 125, 138–140, 142–143; CAVIN, L., BOUDAD, L., and al., Taxonomic Composition and Trophic Structure, p. 1–32
5. CUNY, G., Requins, p. 152-159; IJOUIHER, J., The Desert Bones, p. 104-108.
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